Wildflower Colors Tell Butterflies How To Do Their Jobs

The recipe for making one species into two requires time and some kind of separation, like being on different islands or something else that discourages gene flow between the two budding species.

In the case of common Texas wildflowers that share meadows and roadside ditches, color-coding apparently does the trick.

Duke University graduate student Robin Hopkins has found the first evidence of a specific genetic change that helps two closely related wildflowers avoid creating costly hybrids. It results in one of the normally light blue flowers being tagged with a reddish color to appear less appetizing to the pollinating butterflies which prefer blue.

"There are big questions about evolution that are addressed by flower color," said Hopkins, who successfully defended her doctoral dissertation just weeks before seeing the same work appear in the prestigious journal Nature.

What Hopkins found, with her thesis adviser, Duke biology professor Mark Rausher, is the first clear genetic evidence for something called reinforcement in plants. Reinforcement keeps two similar proto-species moving apart by discouraging hybrid matings. Flower color had been expected to aid reinforcement, but the genes had not been found.

In animals or insects, reinforcement might be accomplished by a small difference in scent, plumage or mating rituals. But plants don't dance or choose their mates. So they apparently exert some choice by using color to discourage the butterflies from mingling their pollen, Hopkins said.

Where Phlox drummondii lives by itself, it has a periwinkle blue blossom. But where its range overlaps with Phlox cuspidata, which is also light blue, drummondii flowers appear darker and more red. Some individual butterflies prefer light blue blossoms and will go from blue to blue, avoiding the dark reds. Other individual butterflies prefer the reds and will stick with those. This "constancy" prevents hybrid crosses.

Hybrid offspring between drummondii and cuspidata turn out to be nearly sterile, making the next generation a genetic dead-end. The persistent force of natural selection tends to push the plants toward avoiding those less fruitful crosses, and encourages breeding true to type. In this case, selection apparently worked upon floral color.

Hopkins was able to find the genes involved in the color change by crossing a light blue drummondii with the red in greenhouse experiments. She found the offspring occurred in four different colors in the exact 9-to-3-to-3-to-1 ratios of classical Mendelian inheritance. "It was 2 in the morning when I figured this out," she said. "I almost woke up my adviser."

From there, she did standard genetics to find the exact genes. The change to red is caused by a recessive gene that knocks out the production of the plant's one blue pigment while allowing for the continued production of two red pigments.

Even where the red flowers are present, about 11 percent of each generation will be the nearly-sterile hybrids. But without color-coding, that figure would be more like 28 percent, Hopkins said. Why and how the butterflies make the distinction has yet to be discovered.

Hopkins will be continuing her research as a visiting scientist at the University of Texas, and the clear message from all of her advisers is "follow the butterflies. Everyone wants to know more about the butterflies!"

The research was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation.

By Karl Leif Bates

CITATION:
"Identification of two genes causing reinforcement in the Texas wildflower Phlox drummondii," Robin Hopkins and Mark D. Rausher. Nature, Advance Online Publication, Jan. 9, 2011 DOI:10.1038/nature09641

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Top Ten 2009 Gardening Trends

(ARA) – Americans craving authenticity and fretting over a bleak economy have reinvigorated the trend to grow-it-yourself (GIY). From blueberries to houseplants, GIY is the new mantra as folks turn "back to the future" to simplify their lives while gardening for the greener good.

"It’s a resurgence of gardening for the greater good -- for the earth and our wallets," says Susan McCoy, trend spotter and president of the Garden Media Group (GMG). "The most exciting movement seems to be that gardening is popular again, particularly among younger homeowners," she adds.

GMG’s gardening trends for 2009 reveal a resurgence in perennials, growing native plants, creating "blended" gardens using vegetables and herbs in flower beds, cultivating with best practices, planting to attract wildlife and going local.

"The urgent commitment to environmental sustainability and the basic desire to make our homes our havens is reflected in all gardening trends for 2009," predicts McCoy.

What’s in: Eco-boosting
What’s out: Conspicuous consumption
One simple way to be an eco-booster is to create natural habitats for wildlife with native plants that attract birds, bees and butterflies. Look for eco-friendly plants like the line of native plants from American Beauties (www.ABNativeplants.com) or the Knock Out family of roses (www.TheKnockoutRose.com), which are drought- and disease-resistant, and require little care or chemicals. Go organic with peat-free soil from The Organic Mechanics Soil Company (www.OrganicMechanicSoil.com) that supports sustainable practices and feeds plants from the soil up.

What’s in: Grow-it-Yourself (GIY)
What’s out: Having someone do it all for you
Tranquil moments may be few but the recent rise in gardening reconnects us with nature, family and friends as we share our bounty. With the increase in demand for year-round fresh fruits and vegetables, local farmers markets are seeing an upsurge in business, community gardens have waiting lists, and plant swaps are on the rise.

What’s in: Blended gardens
What’s out: Segregated gardens
Plant mint and fragrant thyme varietals in between cracks of stone pathways and grow strawberries for a delightful edible groundcover around trees. Fruit-bearing shrubs and trees provide color, privacy and fruitful bounty mingling among veggies and perennials. Garden centers are reporting an increase in demand for fruit-bearing shrubs like blueberries and raspberries as ornamentals. Briggs Nursery (www.BriggsNursery.com) is introducing the first-ever pink blueberry, "Pink Lemonade."

What’s in: Locavore
What’s out: Big carbon footprint
Buying local is all the rage. Gardeners are aware of their role as naturalists and conservationists, and are looking for native plants that thrive in their own backyards. “Native plant cultivars are selected to perform better in specific areas under local conditions,” says Steve Castorani, from American Beauties Native Plants. “When you select a plant that is native to the local area, it will thrive with little to no water, fertilizer or effort.”

What’s in: Water
What’s out: Water
For the first time, water is in and out. Whether bringing in fountains, endless waterfalls, or fish ponds, the soothing sounds of water can turn any backyard into a private oasis. Costa Farms (www.CostaFarms.com) offers plants that drink responsibly like succulents, cactus, yucca and ferns, which are easy, conserve water, and add sizzle to your landscape. The Knock Out family of roses, from bright red to sunny yellow, is drought-resistant.

"Water features such as fountains are showing up not only in the garden but on tabletops, and sometimes more than one in the garden," says Jon Carloftis, a renowned garden designer. He likes the classic and contemporary options from Campania International (www.CampaniaInternational.com) to bring the sight and sound of water into gardens without a lot of fuss or maintenance.

What’s in: Outside inside
What’s out: Outside only
From bean sprouts on kitchen countertops to green walls laden with herbs and micro-greens, plants are decorating spaces as "art- in-motion." Tropical plants like bromeliads and orchids create instant beauty and give a boost of oxygen and clean the air.

"It’s easy to expand your home’s boundaries and add indoor charm to your patio, deck and garden using great indoor plants like ferns and palms. And ornamentals continue to be fashionistas beautifying containers, landscapes, mixed or mass planted," McCoy adds.

What’s in: Info lust
What’s out: Lack of knowledge
Lack of time and knowledge have been primary reasons people hesitate to garden. Not anymore. Novices and experienced gardeners hungry for inspiration, information, and instruction are packing master garden classes for instruction and gardening "how-to" tips. Gardeners are gobbling up information from friends, classes and workshops, local garden media, magazines, and the Internet and sharing their success stories with bloggers and friends

What’s in: Quick and simple
What’s out: Over-the-top and complicated
As time-starved consumers try to juggle busy schedules most seek quick and simple solutions to meet their gardening needs. Containers are no longer a trend but a garden staple in large and small spaces.

Select natural materials like cast stone and terra cotta containers and accessories that are perfect eco-friendly accents. "Big and bold is ‘in’ and square is the new round," says Peter Cilio, creative director for Campania International.

What’s in: Global colors
What’s out: Safe colors
The 2009 color forecasters predict a funky mix of colors that reflect a jambalaya of world cultures. Today’s main color influencers are our global connectivity, cultural unity, and environmental responsibility.

"Colors are bold, crazy, exaggerated, and in-your-face, almost like pop-art, and reflect a playful spirit in the face of world events," says Donna Dorian, former style editor of Garden Design Magazine.

Be uber-trendy with anything red this spring from the Carefree Spirit shrub rose and true red rhododendron "Trocadero" to tropical red Sun Parasol Crimson mandevilla.

What’s in: Worldly
What’s out: Cookie-cutter
Americans have embraced the world bazaar of vibrant colors, textures, sights and sounds. Asian, African, Indian, and Mid-Eastern influences are showing up in patterns, textures and colors.

"As we travel more, we tend to bring more of our memories home -- creating escapist retreats," says John Kinsella, brand director for terrain (www.terrainathome.com).

For a complete look at the GMG 2009 Garden Trends, visit www.GardenMediaGroup.com or subscribe to www.GardenPlot.Blogspot.com.

Courtesy of ARAcontent

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Fall Colors at Lake Peachtree on Election Day

Make sure to participate in your civic duty today! Vote for the candidate of your choice. Early reports in Peachtree City had lines of about one half hour at 8 am.

After voting, take a moment and enjoy the fall colors over Lake Peachtree.

Photo © A S Eldredge 2008. Used with permission.

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Secrets of Season-long Stunning Color in Your Garden

NF Note: Hey, it's another photo contest! We know our readers avid photographers so get ready and get snapping!

(ARA) - In summer, there’s drought; in winter, snow and cold. Does it seem like Mother Nature is determined to leach the color from your garden? It is possible to keep your garden colorful much of the year. All you need is the right combination of plants and a little green thumb savvy.

“One of the top tricks of great gardeners is to plant in the fall,” says Stephanie Cohen, author of many gardening books.

“Establishing most plants in the fall is easy and an excellent way to ensure they’ll be successful in the spring. Adds Cohen, “The weather and soil conditions are better in the fall, as opposed to spring when it tends to be cold, muddy and wet.”

Cohen recommends first, when planning your color-filled garden, to choose easy to grow and drought-resistant plants. Check with your local agricultural extension if you’re unsure what plants will do well in your region and climate. Some particularly hardy flowers – like impatiens, petunias and pansies – can bloom year-round in moderate climates. Be sure to plant a variety that will bloom at different times in the year and within the season.

Next, incorporate some stunners into your garden planning. Roses may well be the essence of floral elegance, but traditional varieties tend to be fragile and labor intensive. Cohen recommends one of the new landscape shrub varieties, like The Knock Out Roses, that require far less care yet bloom spectacularly year round.

These roses grow well anywhere in the country – from the wintry landscape of Minnesota to the sultry shores of Florida – and come in seven colors and bloom styles to suit every garden and landscaping need. From upright shrubs in containers that cover a hard to reach hillside forming a colorful hedge, to adding a focal point in your garden, these beauties will perform every time.

Moving out of the planning phase, be sure to put your plants in the ground at the time of year that’s best for each. For example, some drought-resistant plants can stand up to summer’s heat and go in the ground anytime, even July or August. Flowers, no matter how hardy, generally have an optimum planting time.

“Fall is an excellent time for planting, and roses are no exception,” says Steve Hutton, plantsman and president of The Conard-Pyle Co.

For fall color, Hutton recommends planting Knock Out shrub roses during the closing months of summer. The flowers will bloom well through the end of September in most hardiness zones. Just remember to give them plenty of water and lots of sun.

When planting, always use fertilizer and consider installing drip lines for irrigation with maximum efficiency and minimum waste. Be sure you know a plant’s preferred sun exposure before you slip it into a bed. Many drought-resistant plants can easily handle full sun, but many flowers crave a mix of sun and shade.

“The right plant in the right spot means longer life with less care and use of natural resources,” reminds Hutton.

Once you’ve established your garden, regular maintenance – like removing dead blooms, pruning roses, etc. – and watering should be all you need to ensure your garden is gorgeous and colorful year round.

Enter the "Knock (Us) Out" Photo Contest

If you’d like some recognition for your hard work and brilliant planting strategies Conard-Pyle is sponsoring the “Knock (Us) Out” photo contest. Enter your photographs online now until Oct. 31, 2008. Competitors should take pictures of their creative use of Knock Out roses in one of three categories – home garden, commercial landscape and most creative use. Grand prize is $350 plus five Knock Out roses and 10 companion plants. Runners-up in each category will win $150 and five Knock Out roses.

Visit www.theknockoutrose.com for contest details.

Courtesy of ARAcontent

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